Volunteering in ESL is a rewarding service to the community. This guide presents basic strategies for teaching ESL as well as further resources to facilitate positive experiences in the many types of ESL programs that utilize volunteers. Literacy centers, libraries, refugee agencies, universities, and religious organizations are only a few of the places volunteer-based ESL instruction may be found. This guide addresses the needs of volunteers without a background in education and especially those who may have received little or no training as volunteers, with a focus on adult ESL learners.

• ESL Learners
• Cultural Bridges
• Teaching ESL
• English Skills
• Lesson Planning
• Activities
• Lesson Materials
• Further Resources
• Bibliography
• Citation Information

ESL Learners

Although ESL learners represent a wide diversity of cultural backgrounds and language skills, they all have one thing in common: the need for friendship. It takes time to build trust and understanding on both sides, but with patience and empathy you will be well on your way to developing enriching relationships. The more you know about your learners, the better equipped you will be to meet their needs. Consider the following questions when you first meet your students:

• What language skills are already present?
  Can the student hold a conversation in English but not read and write, or vice versa? Some Asian countries are known for teaching written English and grammar while oral skills lag behind. On the other hand, immigrants who have learned most of their English on the street may have little or no competence with written English. Some students may appear fairly fluent when you meet them, but communication may break down quickly when the topic changes. Or you may meet a student who appears to have minimal speaking skills and discover later that the silence was due to shyness rather than a lack of comprehension. Of course, students who are not literate in their own language will need a different approach to ESL than those who are. See the section on English skills for addressing specific skills.
• Where will English be needed?
  Here are several possibilities: work, job interview, shopping, housing, helping children with schoolwork or speaking with their teachers, public services, friends, social gatherings, television. In some cases, time spent with you may be the only time all week that the student speaks English.
• What do you know about the learner's home country or culture?
  Learn about the cultural attitudes and values your learner is likely to embrace. Also try to find out if there are cultural taboos which may save your student or yourself from embarrassment or unintentional offense. For example, pointing the bottom of your shoe toward someone is a vulgar gesture in Ukraine. The internet and local library are excellent resources for specific cultural information, and you can learn a lot from your student, too. Ask questions!
• Are there any potentially uncomfortable topics requiring extra sensitivity?
  Consider political trauma a student may have experienced. Will someone who recently fled to the U.S. in fear be uncomfortable giving a description of his or her native home? Or will a student trying to resolve immigration issues be reluctant to answer personal questions such as birthplace or job status? Religious practice is another area that may need special consideration. For example, if you talk about food or grocery shopping, will any of your students need to know how to determine if a product contains pork?

Additionally, there are many outside influences that may affect a student's attitudes, attendance, or ability to focus on English. It will likely take time to grow in awareness of these issues. Here are some possibilities to consider:

• Culture Shock and Homesickness
  Almost all foreigners will experience culture shock and homesickness to some degree. See further discussion in the Cultural Bridges section of this guide.
• Life Experiences
  Immigrants from countries ravaged by political unrest may have traumatic memories and resulting fears or insecurity. Others may have held prestigious jobs in their home countries and now face the frustration of being unable to work in their field of expertise. Settling for a low-paying labor job just to survive can take a toll on self esteem and confidence.
• Family Dynamics
  You may never be told about difficulties in your students' personal lives, but issues such as strained marriages, problems with children, alcoholism, or other difficulties in the home are likely to affect a student's performance. Loneliness is often an issue for students who live by themselves.
• Financial Concerns
  Limited income may force families to live in impoverished housing, forgo medical or dental care, or compromise nutrition. Many immigrants sacrifice sleep and work two jobs to make ends meet.
• Legal Issues
  Some visitors have never obtained proper visas or permission to be in the United States and live in fear of being deported. Others may have entered legally but now hold expired visas. Still others may be living in illegal housing arrangements, such as several families sharing one apartment. Some may be trying to apply for permanent residency or citizenship and dealing with paperwork that has been delayed for months, or even years.

Refugees have unique needs. The following is a helpful link for ESL teachers working with refugees.

• Cultural Orientation Resource Center

Cultural Bridges

Developing friendship with your learners can be one of the most significant influences in their adaptation to a new culture. However, ways of thinking or cultural values that vary from your own can be a source of tension, misunderstanding, or even mistrust. An open mind and a basic understanding of some common cultural differences can save you from many potential problems as well as deepen your relationships with your learners.

In her book Foreign to Familiar, Sarah Lanier describes categorical differences she has observed between cultures she labels "cold-climate," such as Europe and most of the United States, and "hot-climate" cultures such as South America, Africa, and most of Asia. She has also observed that in any country, urban areas tend toward cold-climate traits, and rural areas toward hot-climate traits. The following table summarizes many of these differences. Keep in mind that these are general observations and individual students and/or countries may not fit these tendencies. Most will probably represent a mix of these values weighted toward one side or the other.

"Cold-Climate" / Urban	"Hot-Climate" / Rural	Classroom Application
Task and logic oriented, communication gives accurate information, respecting efficiency and time shows respect for people	Relationship and feeling oriented, communication seeks a feel-good atmosphere over accuracy, people are more important than efficiency and time	Start on time and keep the lesson moving along, but allow for brief departures from the lesson to build relationships and let students express themselves even if it seems off-topic
Direct communication, 'yes' and 'no' are taken literally, and honest, polite words are usually not taken personally	Indirect communication, 'yes' and 'no' are not always literal, direct questions or statements may be rude or embarrassing	Avoid direct yes/no questions except on objective topics; avoid correcting a hot-climate student in front of others
Individualistic, value own identity, individuals speak for themselves, taking initiative in a group is encouraged, one person's behavior does not necessarily represent the group	Group oriented, value group identity (belonging), taking initiative in a group is largely determined by roles, one member's behavior reflects on the whole group	Provide roles for group work; when asking a class to vote, realize that one hot climate student's vote may stand for all of his same-culture classmates but a cold-climate student's vote is only his own
Private, value personal time and space, ask permission to borrow things or interrupt conversations, respect personal possessions, acceptable not to include everyone in invitations or plans	Inclusive, being left alone is undesirable, individuals welcome to join conversations or group activities without asking, possessions freely shared, rude not to include everyone in conversations or activities	Balance individual and group work; teach students when and how to ask permission to speak, borrow things, or join an activity (such as playing sports or joining a group at a table)
Hospitality is planned, host usually requires advance notice and makes special preparations, guests pay for many of their own expenses such as transportation	Hospitality is spontaneous, invitations are not required and preparation is not expected, host takes care of all needs and expenses of the guest, host may expect a gift	Students may appreciate your help beyond the classroom; if you are given a gift, the student probably does not expect a gift in return
Time oriented, make plans and schedules, value saving time, expect events such as meals or meetings to begin at the time announced, chat before or after events	Event oriented, relatively unstructured, value experiencing the moment over saving time, less emphasis on the clock, flexible, chatting is part of an event	When planning special events, allow time for hot-climate students to arrive later than cold-climate students, and plan something to do while waiting.

Remember that although none of these cultural values can be called "right" or "wrong," your learners will need to adapt to the cultural expectations of the communities they live in. The southern United States exhibits many hot-climate attitudes while the rest of the country generally holds cold-climate values. So what should your learners expect when they visit an American home? Can they express individual opinions? Should they make small talk at a store? How important is it to be on time for different types of events? It is certainly appropriate to clarify to your learners the cultural values you and your community hold, which they may interact with daily.

• Working on Common Cross-cultural Communication Challenges
  Discussion of six fundamental patterns of cultural difference and suggestions for cross-cultural relationships.

Culture Shock

Culture shock often occurs within a few weeks or months after arrival and may happen more than once, recurring months or years later. Signs to watch for include irritability, lack of concentration, withdrawal, anger, crying easily, lethargy, and negative attitudes toward the United States. These symptoms usually pass in time. Encouraging a sense of purpose and worth can help combat these feelings. Learners who once longed to come to the United States may be disappointed that their life here doesn't measure up to the expectations they had dreamed of. Those who have family members remaining in their native country or who did not wish to come to the United States in the first place may find themselves constantly longing to return "home" and unable to embrace a new culture and lifestyle. Typically these learners will not learn English very quickly as there is an underlying rejection of their whole United States experience.

Teaching ESL

Whether or not you attended training workshops for a specific ESL program, but especially if you did not receive any training or have little prior experience with teaching or tutoring, you may feel apprehensive, even overwhelmed, when you begin your ESL volunteer experience. Many questions may be rolling around your mind. Will you be a good teacher? What will the students expect from you? How do you plan lessons? Where can you find teaching materials? How will you communicate with a student who doesn't speak English? Questions like these are addressed throughout this guide; this section will focus on basic teaching principles and practical issues.

Getting Started: The Basics of Teaching

The following principles apply to almost any kind of teaching. Some of these points may seem like common sense, yet these are the types of issues professional teachers spend years learning and perfecting. Many of these ideas are adapted from Teaching By Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy by H. Douglas Brown and How To Teach English by Jeremy Harmer.

• Make Lessons Interesting
  Bored students won't remember much of the lesson. Don't talk for long blocks of time. Instead, keep students involved and interacting with you and each other in English. Some may come from cultures where teachers lecture and students listen quietly. If interaction makes your students nervous, provide plenty of support by giving clear and very specific directions. Say, "Yuko and Yan, you work together," rather than "everyone get into pairs." Vary the types of skills you practice and activities you use, add games, and bring in real-life objects like a telephone, cook book, or musical instrument. Vary your own dress or behavior patterns for a day. Keep in mind, though, that some degree of predictability will be appreciated by your students, fostering a feeling of safety.
• Make Yourself Understandable
  Simplify your vocabulary, grammar, and speaking speed to the degree necessary to be understood, and keep any instructions simple and logical. New ESL teachers frequently slow down the pace of their speech but forget to modify their vocabulary and grammar for beginning students. As your students' English ability increases, so should the complexity and speed of your English. Some of your interaction at an intermediate level and most of it at an advanced level can use natural grammar and speed, but make sure you slow down or repeat any highly important points. Teach your learners how to ask for clarification when they need it. Try to anticipate unknown vocabulary and be prepared to explain it. Appropriate language modification gets easier with experience.
• Motivate With Rewards
  Learners will truly want to learn when they perceive a personal reward. To boost internal motivation, remind them of the benefits that English can provide, such as English-speaking friends, better job opportunities, easier shopping, or less stress at the doctor's office, and then teach language that will bring them closer to those benefits. Motivation can be boosted externally by praise and encouragement as well as tangible rewards like prizes, certificates, or check marks on an attendance chart. Motivation can be hindered by over-correction or teaching a topic that the learner will not use in daily life.
• Provide a Useful Context
  Learners will remember material better and take more interest in it if it has relevant contextual meaning. Arbitrary rote learning (word lists or grammar drills) may be useful in solidifying language forms, but unless there's a real-world application, sooner or later it's likely to be forgotten.
• Remember that Native Language Affects English Learning
  A learner's native language will provide a basis for figuring out how English works. Sometimes the native language can affect English production. To illustrate, the Japanese language does not use articles (a, an, the) so correct article usage is frequently difficult for Japanese learners. Spanish uses idioms such as "I have thirst" or "I have sleepiness" so Spanish speakers may forget to use "I am..." with an adjective instead of a noun. Most teachers, however, have little if any understanding of their students' native language. While a familiarity with the native language may shed light on certain errors, it is certainly not essential. In fact, intermediate and advanced students are often able to tell you whether a specific error is related to their native language.
• Don't Assume All Errors are Bad
  Native language interference contributes to a gradual process of learning in which language is refined over time to become more like natural English. For example, a learner may progress through phrases such as "no I like peanuts," "I no like peanuts," and finally, "I don't like peanuts." Teachers must not get discouraged watching students exchange one error for another; this process is a natural part of language learning. Selectively choose errors to work on rather than trying to fix everything at once. Give priority to problems that hinder communication rather than incorrect but understandable errors. With gentle corrective feedback, students will keep improving.
• Encourage Learners to Think in English
  Too often ESL learners will get stuck in a habit of thinking in their native language and then mentally translating what they want to say or write into English. This is time consuming and frequently leads to confusion when direct translation isn't possible. Thinking in English requires learners to use learned words, phrases, and language structures to express original ideas without focusing too much on language rules or translation. To illustrate, how would you change the statement "Linda ate an apple" into a question? Of course, "Did Linda eat an apple?" More than likely you didn't think about adding the modal 'do' (in the past tense 'did' because 'ate' is past tense) before the subject, changing the irregular verb 'ate' to 'eat' and raising your vocal intonation at the end of the sentence. While it's unreasonable to expect beginning ESL learners not to rely on native language translation to some degree, one way you can minimize it is to explain new vocabulary using simple English, drawings, or gestures and allow dictionary lookups only as a last resort. You might also ask them to speak (or write if they are able) for several minutes without stopping. At some point, mental translation will become cumbersome and learners should begin developing an ability to use English independently from their native language.
• Build Confidence in Your Students
  Learners must believe in their own ability to complete a task. Without self-confidence, they are unlikely to take risks, and risk-taking is necessary in language learning. Learners need to feel that it's safe to make mistakes. By trying out new or less familiar language, they may find that they are indeed capable of more communication than they thought. Try to reduce feelings of embarrassment when mistakes are made, and give far more compliments than criticisms. Make some tasks easy enough that everyone is guaranteed success.
• Account for Different Learning Styles
  Some people are hands-on learners, some like to watch, some like to have detailed explanations. Some people learn better visually, others audibly. Some like to work in groups, some work better individually. Language teaching should take a variety of learning styles into account through varied activities.
• Know Your Students
  Learn how to pronounce students' names (or ask for easier nicknames) and then remember and use them. Build trust with your students by building relationships and being approachable. Make sure quiet students are included and more assertive ones don't dominate the lesson.

The following guides offer additional information for new teachers about how to teach ESL.

• Help! They Don't Speak English Starter Kit
  Focuses on migrant students. Includes principles of adult learning, ESL teaching methods and suggestions, printable handouts on 16 survival English topics, explanations of specific teaching techniques, and information about Mexican American and Haitian cultures. Divided into several PDF documents.
• Liz Reagan's Teaching Tips
  Twenty teaching tips explained in detail; intended for classrooms but many tips can be applied to individual tutoring.

Focus On Communication

Interaction requires communication, the transfer of a meaningful idea from one person to another. Good teachers go beyond the building blocks of English such as vocabulary lists or grammar drills to develop a learner's oral, written, and even non-verbal communication skills. Every lesson should prepare your students for real-world interaction in some way. Think meaningful and usable.

When communication breaks down, native speakers usually try to clarify any potentially unclear items by asking questions and offering explanations. They ask for repetition or more information, confirm that the other person has understood what was said, expand on words or topics, or repeat back a paraphrase of what they just heard to confirm that they got it right. This is one of the greatest communication skills, but it can be difficult and ESL learners need to be taught how to do this in English.

Teachers bring communication into their lessons by guiding learners through tasks or activities which require meaningful communication in a relevant context. Here are some tips for making your lessons communicative:

• Clarification Skills
  Teach your students how to ask for clarification. The following phrases may serve as a starting point and can be expanded or adapted to an appropriate language level.
  • Do you understand?
  • Excuse me? / Could you repeat that?
  • Once more. / One more time.
  • Please speak more slowly.
  • How do you spell that?
  • Did you say ______?
  • What does ______ mean?
  • How do you say ______ in English?
  • I don't know.
  • I don't understand.
• Pair and Group Work
  When students must work with each other or one-on-one with you, they are forced to communicate. Make sure you have taught them how to ask for clarification when they don't understand something. If students share the same native language, limit its use as much as possible. Information gap activities, role plays, and collaborative problem solving are some communicative activities explained in more detail in the activities section of this guide.
• Individual Communication
  Some types of communication are not highly interactive. For example, you can have students give a speech, write a letter or composition, or report group work results to the class. As long as they are producing original language to convey their own thoughts, they are practicing communication.
• Interactive Teaching
  Specific practice activities aren't the only place where communication can occur. While you are teaching your main lesson, you don't need to do all the talking. Involve your students by asking them for related vocabulary words, the spelling of a word they suggest, the past tense of verbs (especially irregular ones), examples beyond those in the textbook, etc. Draw out what they already know and connect it to their life experiences. For example, if your text contains the word 'allergy' and you aren't sure if the students understand it, rather than simply teaching "an allergy is..." and moving on, ask if anyone knows the meaning and can explain it, what types of allergies the students can think of, and whether anyone has an allergy. Ask for the spelling of the plural form, 'allergies.' If your students have a lot to say, these side-tracks can become time-consuming. You will need to decide how much time you will allow for this so you can still complete your lesson.
• What Communication is Not
  Some elements of your lesson will probably not be communicative. For example, memorization, vocabulary lists, reading, listening tasks, grammar structures, and pronunciation practice do not require any original language to be produced by the learner, yet they are all valuable building blocks for communication. As a teacher, you should be aware of the difference between what is communicative and what is not and balance the two.

Teaching Adults

Adults bring life experiences and a level of maturity into the classroom that children and adolescents do not. Their expectations and motivations reflect this. Here are several keys to keep in mind when teaching adults:

• Adult classrooms may present great diversity
  Be prepared for diversity of cultural background, age, previous formal education, previous exposure to English, life experiences, and current life situations.
• Adults respond well to knowledgeable, enthusiastic teachers
  You must be comfortable with the subject matter you are teaching and communicate enthusiasm for the subject matter and your role as a teacher. This will help you gain respect and is especially important if you are younger than your students. If you must teach material which is challenging for you, try not to communicate a negative attitude about the material to your students. If a student asks a question which you can't answer, don't be afraid to say, "I don't know, but I'll find out for you."
• Adults are not too old to learn a second language well
  Although native language learning and literacy are best accomplished in childhood, when it comes to learning a second language, research has shown that adolescents and adults outperform children. Adolescents even surpassed children in pronunciation skills. One of the reasons children appear to acquire a second language faster than adults is simply that they get a lot more practice with other children and have lower inhibitions, but many adults have attained a high level of fluency in a foreign language.
• Adults need a comfortable and safe learning atmosphere
  Trial and error should be encouraged in language learning. Adults will take more risks in an environment where it's safe to make mistakes without embarrassment. You may want to minimize public reading and writing until your learners gain confidence, especially if literacy skills are deficient. The same goes for standing in front of the group to speak.
• Adult learning is transformative
  Learning in childhood is said to be formative, when skills and concepts are developed for the first time. Adults, on the other hand, are extending and refining their knowledge based on existing knowledge and beliefs. They are changed or transformed by learning experiences.
• Adults need repeated practice of a concept or skill
  Adults generally need patience and repetition to solidify new language concepts or skills. If adults have already developed bad habits with English errors, these will take time and effort to break. Adults also tend to have a lot on their minds and limited time to practice English outside the classroom.
• Adults learn well with question asking and answering, and problem finding and solving
  These activities require mature thought processes which stimulate and motivate adult minds.
• Adults want practical, real-life contexts
  The more relevant and useful the subject matter, the more motivated your learners will be. Adults enjoy materials that relate to their personal experiences and interests, and they want to be able to apply what they're learning in the real world.

Language Levels

What do the terms beginner, intermediate, and advanced really mean? Unfortunately the definitions vary among institutions. The following guide for oral communication ability, though subjective, may be useful if your program does not have its own definitions of performance standards:

• True Beginner
  • Very limited communication in English
  • Uses gestures and 1-3 word utterances
• Beginner
  • Communicates with difficulty and many errors
  • Very simple, unelaborated answers
  • Many hesitations
  • No ability to extend conversation
  • Uses simple grammar & vocabulary
• Low Intermediate
  • Communicates understandably with some errors
  • Simple answers and little elaboration
  • Attempts interactive conversation
  • Attempts more complex grammar
• High Intermediate
  • Communicates fairly well
  • Some elaboration, especially on familiar topics
  • Can converse with errors and some hesitations
  • Uses more complex grammar & vocabulary
• Advanced
  • Communicates well with occasional errors
  • Converses with lots of elaboration and interaction
  • Errors don't hinder communication
  • Uses advanced grammar & vocabulary

This Canadian Language Benchmarks (CLB) document represents a Canadian language standard established and refined over more than two decades.

• Canadian Language Benchmarks: English as a Second Language for Adults
  Descriptions of ESL levels for listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

Your volunteer program may or may not have its own system for assessing student language levels. If you work with a student one-on-one, knowing the 'level' is not as critical as knowing the student; you will soon discover strengths and weaknesses and develop a sense of what your student can or can't handle. However, if you work with more than one learner, your task will be much easier if they are all near the same language level. For this reason, many programs test language levels for all new students for placement purposes. The following is a sample intake test based on the above performance descriptions. Testing instructions are found on page two. An accompanying page of drawings has not been included due to copyright.

• Sample Intake Test
  Sample interview test for oral communication ability from International Students Inc. at Colorado State University; used by permission.

Two standardized language assessment systems widely used in adult education are the Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment System (CASAS) and the Basic English Skills Test (BEST). More information on these is available below.

• CASAS - Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment System
  The "Life Skills Assessment" is used in many adult ESL programs to measure English ability in listening, reading, writing, speaking (interview), and math. It is appropriate for all English levels. Training is required to administer the test. Contact CASAS for cost information.
• BEST - Basic English Skills Test (Center for Applied Linguistics)
  Several states including Colorado utilize the BEST for their adult ESL programs. Scores are correlated to 10 performance levels zero ability through native speaker. There is a 15-minute oral interview section scoring communication, fluency, pronunciation, and listening, and a 1-hour literary skills section scoring reading and writing. A short form of the oral interview is available scoring communication and fluency through performance level 7. A test administration training video is available. Contact the Center for Applied Linguistics for cost information.

Multilevel Groups

It can be challenging to manage multiple language levels together. Perhaps you tutor a husband and wife with differing levels, or maybe you have a whole classroom full of students diverse not only in English ability but also in culture, age, and literacy skills. If you are dealing with tension between learners due to cultural differences, try to find and emphasize any common ground between them. Where age gaps exist, usually the younger learners will make faster progress than the older ones. To preserve respect for your older students, give them a chance to answer first, or assign them helping tasks such as handing out and collecting papers or taking attendance. If some of your learners are literate in their native language and others aren't, often due to varying levels of prior formal education, the literate students will almost always make faster progress than the non-literate ones because they can process visual as well as aural cues and can take notes to study later. Therefore even if your learners begin with similar oral abilities, they will soon become multilevel as the learning gap widens. It can be effective to use peer tutoring pairing a literate student with a non-literate one as long as the 'tutor-tutee' roles are occasionally interchanged. The non-literate student should be given the chance to take the 'tutor' role with another non-literate student of lower ability or even with a literate student in a non-text-dependent activity.

In a multilevel class, it's a good idea to focus on topics rather than specific language skills, and focus on doing rather than studying. Work on specific skills as issues arise. Find long-term, hands-on projects in which all levels can participate such as a quilt, garden, collage, video, or dramatic production. Creating a survey that says "I want to learn English for..." with several options to check off and space for comments may help you discover common needs and interests in the group which you can use as a foundation for your lessons.

Multilevel classes frequently begin and end with whole-group activities to foster a sense of unity among the students. It's possible to teach the entire class session as a whole group, but many teachers choose to break into pair or group work for all or part of the main class time. Groups are often formed with similar ability levels so that students within a group can work on the same activity at about the same pace; such groups don't need to be the same size. Grouping mixed ability levels allows students to help one another as the whole class does the same activity. You can have all groups working on activities concurrently, or you may want to rotate between 2-3 groups, teaching a lesson to one while others work on a self-guided task. The latter method requires greater preparation but is better able to meet level-specific needs. Here are some ideas for pair and group work.

• Similar-Ability Pairs
  Such pairs should do tasks where each role is interchangeable and the same difficulty. Examples: information gaps, dialogs, role plays, and two-way interviews.
• Mixed-Ability Pairs
  Such pairs need unequal tasks. Examples: a story dictated by one and transcribed by the other, an interview in which one asks and one answers, and role plays with one larger role.
• Similar-Ability Groups
  Groups can be different sizes. Consider gender, culture, and age issues when grouping. Such groups can work on tasks where everyone can contribute equally. Examples: problem solving, sequencing, and process writing.
• Mixed-Ability Groups
  Such groups need activities that don't require equal language abilities for participation. Examples: board games, making lists, and arts or crafts.
• Individuals
  Selected individuals much higher or much lower than the rest of the class may be given independent tasks to work on.

When working with the whole class at once, there are several strategies you can use to keep higher level students challenged while not neglecting beginners. If you give time for a task and you know advanced students will complete it quickly, give them extra activities like a writing assignment or worksheet to do while waiting for the rest of the class to finish. You can ask advanced students to explain new vocabulary words (preferably in English), take notes on the board while you teach, or model a dialog with you. When holding class discussions or checking comprehension of the lesson, ask beginners simple questions with one correct answer, saving open-ended and opinion questions for higher level students. In choosing whole-group activities, minimize reliance on texts, especially if your class includes non-literate students. Warm-ups, cassette or video clips, brainstorming, songs, and field trips are some activities well suited to multilevel participation. Try to ensure that your lessons will stimulate various learning styles as well.

After you have taught the class for a while, you may find yourself struggling with problematic issues. Don't hesitate to go to your program leaders for support and advice. Additionally, you can ask for student feedback on their class experience, and discuss any individual concerns directly with the respective students. The following are some common concerns in multilevel classes.

• If Advanced Students Dominate
  This may happen in mixed-level groups. If it becomes problematic, end the group work and facilitate the activity yourself using the board so all students can see and participate. Make a note to try an alternate grouping strategy next time. If this is happening during whole-class activities, you may need to take a more active role in quieting dominant students and calling on beginners.
• If Advanced Students Seem Bored or Beginners Seem Lost
  It seems obvious to challenge advanced students more and help beginners feel included, but this is easier said than done. It will probably help to speak individually with each of the students you're concerned about and ask for their suggestions.
• If Students Use Their Native Language
  This is usually not a major concern in a multilevel class. You can allow some native language helping as long as the lower students are making progress and not having everything interpreted. However, if you feel that the native language use is hindering English learning, set ground rules for the entire class regarding when and why and how much native language can be spoken.
• If Classes are Too Big or Too Diverse
  Discuss options with program leaders like bringing in volunteer assistants or splitting classes. Although such solutions may seem unlikely, it doesn't hurt to ask.
• If You Get Burned Out
  It's impossible to cater to all the needs of every student, especially beyond the classroom. If you are drained by students relying heavily on you for assistance in other areas of their lives, you can make appropriate referrals and guide students toward being more independent. If your burnout stems from complex lesson planning, take a break for a potluck or other fun, non-lesson class session.

Conversation Partners

As a conversation partner, your main role is to facilitate conversation practice. Although you may occasionally find yourself explaining English language points, you aren't expected to function as an ESL teacher. Your aim should be to give your student ample speaking practice. Help your student build confidence in expressing his or her own thoughts. A flowing communication of ideas is more important than accurate English usage.

Your student's personality will affect the kind of preparation you need to do before your session. It's often helpful to prepare a list of questions or conversation ideas ahead of time if one is not provided for you, and you will obviously need more ideas for shy students than for talkative ones. Think about ways to extend a topic if your student appears to have little to say. You may want to ask your student what kinds of topics would be of interest for future sessions.

Consider these tips to become an effective conversation partner.

• Speak at a Natural Pace
  Slow down only when absolutely necessary. Your student will probably not understand everything, which provides an opportunity for the student to practice asking for clarification. If you are asked to repeat something, repeat your exact words. Then you can offer a paraphrase if there is still misunderstanding.
• Check Comprehension
  Many students will nod as you speak even though they don't understand what you're saying. They may be hoping that you will eventually say something that connects the bits and pieces they have managed to absorb, or they may be signaling that they heard your voice. If your student nods a lot, gets a blank look, or becomes silent, directly ask whether he or she understands. If not, you may need to slow down or at least simplify your grammar and vocabulary.
• Elaborate Topics
  Stay on one topic as long as you can. This helps a student learn to carry a conversation rather than just answering a series of unrelated questions. Encourage the student to ask you questions about the topic, too.
• Bring Objects to Stimulate Conversation
  This is great for shy students. Try family or vacation photos, cookbooks with pictures, board games, library books about your student's country or other topics with lots of pictures, and short, current newspaper or magazine articles.
• Avoid Correcting Homework
  Students may bring their ESL homework and ask you to check the answers. Not only does this take away time from developing conversation skills, it can potentially force you into the role of a teacher explaining why an answer is right or wrong. If you are willing to provide this service to your student, try to do it before or after your allotted conversation partner time.
• Minimize Error Correction
  Constant correction slows down conversation and hinders the development of fluency. Correct only those errors that block communication.
• Vary the Scenery
  Unless you must meet at a fixed location, occasionally vary your meeting place. Try a park, library, home, coffee shop, nature walk, etc.
• Keep a Journal
  Write down what you talked about or did so you can use it again or refine it for future use
• Recognize Stages of Cultural Adjustment
  Stages of initial happiness but confusion, hostile attitudes from continued frustration and confusion, humor and tolerance as new cultural rules are understood more, and feeling at home with an understanding of cultural expectations are all common during cultural adjustment, and students may skip or repeat some of these stages. Try to be aware of cultural adjustment issues and help your student understand and adapt to American culture.
• Refer Problems to Qualified Program Personnel
  As you develop trust, you may find your student confiding in you about serious problems (medical, legal, landlord, family, etc.) which you may not be qualified to handle. If you aren't trained as a counselor, resist the urge to be one. Express compassion, but refer the student to a program leader or assist with getting help from an appropriate professional office or public service.

Here are some conversation questions to help you get started. Most of them are suitable for low intermediate and above. You can adapt the complexity of the questions to your student's level.

• Conversation Questions for the ESL/EFL Classroom
  Many categorized lists of questions to facilitate conversation.

Conversation Groups

You may be a leader of a conversation group or perhaps a classroom assistant assigned to a few students for a classroom activity. Again, your role is more of a facilitator than a teacher. The main goal is conversational English practice.

• Encourage Friendship
  Help the group members get to know each other and become friends through pair interviews, icebreaker games, or even social activities. Students will speak more freely when they feel a connection to other group members.
• Include Everyone
  If you have a very talkative student who tends to dominate the conversation, find ways to limit speaking time and ask others for their opinions. If you have a shy or silent student, make sure to specifically include him or her. Be careful, though. The silence may be due to lower language ability, so begin by asking easy yes/no or either/or questions rather than open-ended opinion questions. It may also be helpful to sit right next to more talkative students and across from quieter ones if you are in a circle.
• Monitor Native Language Use
  Discourage native language use as much as possible. Students may ask each other what an English vocabulary word means because they don't want to interrupt the conversation to ask in English. Explain that it is polite and acceptable to say, "Excuse me, what does ______ mean?" Students may also ask each other how to say a native language word in English. This is less problematic because the student's goal is to use English. If your group has mixed languages, splitting up same-language friends will discourage native language use, but they may also speak less English if they are seated between classmates with whom they are less comfortable. You will need to tune in to each student's personality when deciding whether or not to separate same-language speakers.
• Clarify Expectations
  Recognize that some students may come from cultures where education is very formal and classes don't include discussion groups. They may be uncomfortable with the casual American style and need help to adjust. Explain your expectations about your seating arrangement, starting on time or chatting first, who can speak and when, and in what circumstances students may speak their native language.

English Skills

When we think of English skills, the 'four skills' of listening, speaking, reading, and writing readily come to mind. Of course other skills such as pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and spelling all play a role in effective English communication. The amount of attention you give to each skill area will depend both the level of your learners as well as their situational needs. Generally beginners, especially those who are nonliterate, benefit most from listening and speaking instruction with relatively little work on reading and writing. As fluency increases, the amount of reading and writing in your lessons may also increase. With advanced learners, up to half of your lesson time can be spent on written skills, although your learners may wish to keep their focus weighted toward oral communication if that is a greater need.

Teaching Listening

Listening skills are vital for your learners. Of the 'four skills,' listening is by far the most frequently used. Listening and speaking are often taught together, but beginners, especially non-literate ones, should be given more listening than speaking practice. It's important to speak as close to natural speed as possible, although with beginners some slowing is usually necessary. Without reducing your speaking speed, you can make your language easier to comprehend by simplifying your vocabulary, using shorter sentences, and increasing the number and length of pauses in your speech.

There are many types of listening activities. Those that don't require learners to produce language in response are easier than those that do. Learners can be asked to physically respond to a command (for example, "please open the door"), select an appropriate picture or object, circle the correct letter or word on a worksheet, draw a route on a map, or fill in a chart as they listen. It's more difficult to repeat back what was heard, translate into the native language, take notes, make an outline, or answer comprehension questions. To add more challenge, learners can continue a story text, solve a problem, perform a similar task with a classmate after listening to a model (for example, order a cake from a bakery), or participate in real-time conversation.

Good listening lessons go beyond the listening task itself with related activities before and after the listening. Here is the basic structure:

• Before Listening
  Prepare your learners by introducing the topic and finding out what they already know about it. A good way to do this is to have a brainstorming session and some discussion questions related to the topic. Then provide any necessary background information and new vocabulary they will need for the listening activity.
• During Listening
  Be specific about what students need to listen for. They can listen for selective details or general content, or for an emotional tone such as happy, surprised, or angry. If they are not marking answers or otherwise responding while listening, tell them ahead of time what will be required afterward.
• After Listening
  Finish with an activity to extend the topic and help students remember new vocabulary. This could be a discussion group, craft project, writing task, game, etc.

The following ideas will help make your listening activities successful.

• Noise
  Reduce distractions and noise during the listening segment. You may need to close doors or windows or ask children in the room to be quiet for a few minutes.
• Equipment
  If you are using a cassette player, make sure it produces acceptable sound quality. A counter on the machine will aid tremendously in cueing up tapes. Bring extra batteries or an extension cord with you.
• Repetition
  Read or play the text a total of 2-3 times. Tell students in advance you will repeat it. This will reduce their anxiety about not catching it all the first time. You can also ask them to listen for different information each time through.
• Content
  Unless your text is merely a list of items, talk about the content as well as specific language used. The material should be interesting and appropriate for your class level in topic, speed, and vocabulary. You may need to explain reductions (like 'gonna' for 'going to') and fillers (like 'um' or 'uh-huh').
• Recording Your Own Tape
  Write appropriate text (or use something from your textbook) and have another English speaker read it onto tape. Copy the recording three times so you don't need to rewind. The reader should not simply read three times, because students want to hear exact repetition of the pronunciation, intonation, and pace, not just the words.
• Video
  You can play a video clip with the sound off and ask students to make predictions about what dialog is taking place. Then play it again with sound and discuss why they were right or wrong in their predictions. You can also play the sound without the video first, and show the video after students have guessed what is going on.
• Homework
  Give students a listening task to do between classes. Encourage them to listen to public announcements in airports, bus stations, supermarkets, etc. and try to write down what they heard. Tell them the telephone number of a cinema and ask them to write down the playing times of a specific movie. Give them a tape recording of yourself with questions, dictation, or a worksheet to complete.

Look for listening activities in the Activities and Lesson Materials sections of this guide. If your learners can use a computer with internet access and headphones or speakers, you may direct them toward the following listening practice sites. You could also assign specific activities from these sites as homework. Teach new vocabulary ahead of time if necessary.

• Randall's ESL Cyber Listening Lab
  Around 140 listening clips and quizzes for students to access online; categorized into four difficulty levels, but activities marked 'easy' may be too difficult for beginners due to unfamiliar vocabulary; many include pre- and post-listening exercises; requires audio software such as RealPlayer (free) or optional interactive software like Divace.
• The English Listening Lounge
  Thirty free listening clips categorized into three difficulty levels for students to access online; more available with membership; requires audio software such as RealPlayer (free).

Teaching Speaking

Speaking English is the main goal of many adult learners. Their personalities play a large role in determining how quickly and how correctly they will accomplish this goal. Those who are risk-takers unafraid of making mistakes will generally be more talkative, but with many errors that could become hard-to-break habits. Conservative, shy students may take a long time to speak confidently, but when they do, their English often contains fewer errors and they will be proud of their English ability. It's a matter of quantity vs. quality, and neither approach is wrong. However, if the aim of speaking is communication and that does not require perfect English, then it makes sense to encourage quantity in your classroom. Break the silence and get students communicating with whatever English they can use, correct or not, and selectively address errors that block communication.

Speaking lessons often tie in pronunciation and grammar (discussed elsewhere in this guide), which are necessary for effective oral communication. Or a grammar or reading lesson may incorporate a speaking activity. Either way, your  students will need some preparation before the speaking task. This includes introducing the topic and providing a model of the speech they are to produce. A model may not apply to discussion-type activities, in which case students will need clear and specific instructions about the task to be accomplished. Then the students will practice with the actual speaking activity.

These activities may include imitating (repeating), answering verbal cues, interactive conversation, or an oral presentation. Most speaking activities inherently practice listening skills as well, such as when one student is given a simple drawing and sits behind another student, facing away. The first must give instructions to the second to reproduce the drawing. The second student asks questions to clarify unclear instructions, and neither can look at each other's page during the activity. Information gaps are also commonly used for speaking practice, as are surveys, discussions, and role-plays. Speaking activities abound; see the Activities and Further Resources sections of this guide for ideas.

Here are some ideas to keep in mind as you plan your speaking activities.

• Content
  As much as possible, the content should be practical and usable in real-life situations. Avoid too much new vocabulary or grammar, and focus on speaking with the language the students have.
• Correcting Errors
  You need to provide appropriate feedback and correction, but don't interrupt the flow of communication. Take notes while pairs or groups are talking and address problems to the class after the activity without embarrassing the student who made the error. You can write the error on the board and ask who can correct it.
• Quantity vs. Quality
  Address both interactive fluency and accuracy, striving foremost for communication. Get to know each learner's personality and encourage the quieter ones to take more risks.
• Conversation Strategies
  Encourage strategies like asking for clarification, paraphrasing, gestures, and initiating ('hey,' 'so,' 'by the way').
• Teacher Intervention
  If a speaking activity loses steam, you may need to jump into a role-play, ask more discussion questions, clarify your instructions, or stop an activity that is too difficult or boring.

Teaching Reading

We encounter a great variety of written language day to day -- articles, stories, poems, announcements, letters, labels, signs, bills, recipes, schedules, questionnaires, cartoons, the list is endless. Literate adults easily recognize the distinctions of various types of texts. This guide will not cover instruction for learners with little or no literacy in their native language; you will need to work intensively with them at the most basic level of letter recognition and phonics.

Finding authentic reading material may not be difficult, but finding materials appropriate for the level of your learners can be a challenge. Especially with beginners, you may need to significantly modify texts to simplify grammar and vocabulary. When choosing texts, consider what background knowledge may be necessary for full comprehension. Will students need to "read between the lines" for implied information? Are there cultural nuances you may need to explain? Does the text have any meaningful connection to the lives of your learners? Consider letting your students bring in their choice of texts they would like to study. This could be a telephone bill, letter, job memo, want ads, or the back of a cereal box. Motivation will be higher if you use materials of personal interest to your learners.

Your lesson should begin with a pre-reading activity to introduce the topic and make sure students have enough vocabulary, grammar, and background information to understand the text. Be careful not to introduce a lot of new vocabulary or grammar because you want your students to be able to respond to the content of the text and not expend too much effort analyzing the language. If you don't want to explain all of the potentially new material ahead of time, you can allow your learners to discuss the text with a partner and let them try to figure it out together with the help of a dictionary. After the reading activity, check comprehension and engage the learners with the text, soliciting their opinions and further ideas orally or with a writing task.

Consider the following when designing your reading lessons.

• Purpose
  Your students need to understand ahead of time why they are reading the material you have chosen.
• Reading Strategies
  When we read, our minds do more than recognize words on the page. For faster and better comprehension, choose activities before and during your reading task that practice the following strategies.
  • Prediction: This is perhaps the most important strategy. Give your students hints by asking them questions about the cover, pictures, headlines, or format of the text to help them predict what they will find when they read it.
  • Guessing From Context: Guide your students to look at contextual information outside or within the text. Outside context includes the source of the text, its format, and how old it is; inside context refers to topical information and the language used (vocabulary, grammar, tone, etc.) as well as illustrations. If students have trouble understanding a particular word or sentence, encourage them to look at the context to try to figure it out. Advanced students may also be able to guess cultural references and implied meanings by considering context.
  • Skimming: This will improve comprehension speed and is useful at the intermediate level and above. The idea of skimming is to look over the entire text quickly to get the basic idea. For example, you can give your students 30 seconds to skim the text and tell you the main topic, purpose, or idea. Then they will have a framework to understand the reading when they work through it more carefully.
  • Scanning: This is another speed strategy to use with intermediate level and above. Students must look through a text quickly, searching for specific information. This is often easier with non-continuous texts such as recipes, forms, or bills (look for an ingredient amount, account number, date of service, etc.) but scanning can also be used with continuous texts like newspaper articles, letters, or stories. Ask your students for a very specific piece of information and give them just enough time to find it without

Citation: Please adapt for your documentation style.

Lim, Kristina. (2005). ESL Volunteer Guide. The WAC Clearinghouse. Colorado State University. https://writing.colostate.edu/teaching/guide.cfm?guideid=115